{"id":639,"date":"2020-06-17T16:04:22","date_gmt":"2020-06-17T16:04:22","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=639"},"modified":"2020-12-20T20:49:53","modified_gmt":"2020-12-20T20:49:53","slug":"what-is-personality","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/chapter\/what-is-personality\/","title":{"raw":"What is Personality?","rendered":"What is Personality?"},"content":{"raw":"<div id=\"3525\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">By the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define personality<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe early theories about personality development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm43240080\"><strong><span id=\"term688\">Personality<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways. Our personality is what makes us unique individuals. Each person has an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring, long-term characteristics and a manner in which they interacts with other individuals and the world around them. Our personalities are thought to be long term, stable, and not easily changed. The word\u00a0<em>personality<\/em>\u00a0comes from the Latin word\u00a0<em>persona<\/em>. In the ancient world, a persona was a mask worn by an actor. While we tend to think of a mask as being worn to conceal one\u2019s identity, the theatrical mask was originally used to either represent or project a specific personality trait of a character (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/11-1-what-is-personality#Figure_11_01_Masks\">Figure P.2<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"Figure_11_01_Masks\" class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"487\"]<img id=\"46665\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/195a9b26aea6e3cd80d87d97d609833b359eac95\" alt=\"Three masks are arranged side by side. The masks are almost identical, but with slightly different facial expressions resulting from the masks being at different angles. The first mask is tilted downward and has downcast eyes. The second mask is shown straight on and is directing its gaze slightly higher than the first. The third mask is tilted upwards so its gaze is directed more upward.\" width=\"487\" height=\"249\" \/> Figure P.2\u00a0Happy, sad, impatient, shy, fearful, curious, helpful. What characteristics describe your personality?[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm105544992\">\r\n<h3>Historical Perspectives<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm156209440\">The concept of personality has been studied for at least 2,000 years, beginning with Hippocrates in 370 BCE (Fazeli, 2012). Hippocrates theorized that personality traits and human behaviours are based on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids (\u201chumors\u201d) of the body: choleric temperament (yellow bile from the liver), melancholic temperament (black bile from the kidneys), sanguine temperament (red blood from the heart), and phlegmatic temperament (white phlegm from the lungs) (Clark &amp; Watson, 2008; Eysenck &amp; Eysenck, 1985; Lecci &amp; Magnavita, 2013; Noga, 2007). Centuries later, the influential Greek physician and philosopher\u00a0<span id=\"term689\" class=\"no-emphasis\">Galen<\/span>\u00a0built on Hippocrates\u2019s theory, suggesting that both diseases and personality differences could be explained by imbalances in the humors and that each person exhibits one of the four temperaments. For example, the choleric person is passionate, ambitious, and bold; the melancholic person is reserved, anxious, and unhappy; the sanguine person is joyful, eager, and optimistic; and the phlegmatic person is calm, reliable, and thoughtful (Clark &amp; Watson, 2008; Stelmack &amp; Stalikas, 1991). Galen\u2019s theory was prevalent for over 1,000 years and continued to be popular through the Middle Ages.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm47473936\">In 1780, Franz Gall, a German physician, proposed that the distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person\u2019s personality traits, character, and mental abilities (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/11-1-what-is-personality#Figure_11_01_Phrenology\">Figure P.3<\/a>). According to Gall, measuring these distances revealed the sizes of the brain areas underneath, providing information that could be used to determine whether a person was friendly, prideful, murderous, kind, good with languages, and so on. Initially, phrenology was very popular; however, it was soon discredited for lack of empirical support and has long been relegated to the status of pseudoscience (Fancher, 1979).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"Figure_11_01_Phrenology\" class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"975\"]<img id=\"19954\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/a14732df065a5e9340583a75bec7e8e036521f7b\" alt=\"Photograph A shows the cover of the American Phrenological Journal circa 1848. Across the top it reads: \u201cAmerican Phrenological Journal.\u201d Below that it says \u201cKnow thyself.\u201d Below that is a picture of a human head facing left, with many pictures comprising the area where the brain is. Below the person\u2019s ear it says \u201cHome truths for home consumption.\u201d The lines below that read: \u201c1848,\u201d \u201cVol. X, March, No. 3,\u201d \u201cO.S. Fowler, Editor,\u201d \u201cPhrenology, Physiology, Physiognomy, Magnetism,\u201d \u201cNew York,\u201d \u201cFowlers and Wells,\u201d \u201cPhrenological cabinet, 131 Nassau-Street,\u201d and \u201cTerms $1 a year, invariably in advance. Ten cts. a Number.\u201d Photograph B shows a printed cartoon of a person in a chair with another person behind. There are three other people in the room, and the wall is decorated with various skulls. Below the picture it reads: \u201cDrawn on Stone by E.H,\u201d and \u201cThe Phrenologist.\u201d\" width=\"975\" height=\"503\" \/> Figure P.3\u00a0The pseudoscience of measuring the areas of a person\u2019s skull is known as phrenology. (a) Gall developed a chart that depicted which areas of the skull corresponded to particular personality traits or characteristics (Hothersall, 1995). (b) An 1825 lithograph depicts Gall examining the skull of a young woman. (credit b: modification of work by Wellcome Library, London)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm95754240\">In the centuries after Galen, other researchers contributed to the development of his four primary temperament types, most prominently Immanuel Kant (in the 18th century) and psychologist Wilhelm\u00a0<span id=\"term690\" class=\"no-emphasis\">Wundt<\/span>\u00a0(in the 19th century) (Eysenck, 2009; Stelmack &amp; Stalikas, 1991; Wundt, 1874\/1886) (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/11-1-what-is-personality#Figure_11_01_FourTemper\">Figure P.4<\/a>). Kant agreed with Galen that everyone could be sorted into one of the four temperaments and that there was no overlap between the four categories (Eysenck, 2009). He developed a list of traits that could be used to describe the personality of a person from each of the four temperaments. However, Wundt suggested that a better description of personality could be achieved using two major axes: emotional\/nonemotional and changeable\/unchangeable. The first axis separated strong from weak emotions (the melancholic and choleric temperaments from the phlegmatic and sanguine). The second axis divided the changeable temperaments (choleric and sanguine) from the unchangeable ones (melancholic and phlegmatic) (Eysenck, 2009).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"Figure_11_01_FourTemper\" class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"731\"]<img id=\"68113\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/f8e99849343e7abf0b2cbe63807562005005179b\" alt=\"A circle is divided vertically and horizontally into four sections by lines with arrows at the ends. Clockwise from the top, the arrows are labeled \u201cStrong Emotions,\u201d \u201cChangeable Temperaments,\u201d \u201cWeak Emotions,\u201d and \u201cUnchangeable Temperaments.\u201d The arcs around the perimeter of the circle, clockwise beginning with the top right segment are labeled \u201cCholeric,\u201d \u201cSanguine,\u201d \u201cPhlegmatic,\u201d and \u201cMelancholic.\u201d The sections inside each arc contain descriptive words. Inside the Choleric arc are the words \u201cexcitable, egocentric, exhibitionist, impulsive, histrionic, and active.\u201d Inside the Sanguine arc are the words \u201cplayful, easygoing, sociable, carefree, hopeful, and contented.\u201d Inside the Phlegmatic arc are the words \u201creasonable, principled, controlled, persistent, steadfast, and calm.\u201d Inside the Melancholic arc are the words \u201canxious, worried, unhappy, suspicious, serious, and thoughtful.\u201d\" width=\"731\" height=\"573\" \/> Figure P.4\u00a0Developed from Galen\u2019s theory of the four temperaments, Kant proposed trait words to describe each temperament. Wundt later suggested the arrangement of the traits on two major axes.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm137925040\">Sigmund Freud\u2019s psychodynamic perspective of personality was the first comprehensive theory of personality, explaining a wide variety of both normal and abnormal behaviours. According to Freud, unconscious drives influenced by sex and aggression, along with childhood sexuality, are the forces that influence our personality.\u00a0<span id=\"term691\" class=\"no-emphasis\">Freud<\/span>\u00a0attracted many followers who modified his ideas to create new theories about personality. These theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but they reduced the emphasis on sex and focused more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality. The perspective of personality proposed by Freud and his followers was the dominant theory of personality for the first half of the 20th century.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm36840480\">Other major theories then emerged, including the learning, humanistic, biological, evolutionary, trait, and cultural perspectives. In this chapter, we will explore these various perspectives on personality in depth.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp33274256\" class=\"psychology link-to-learning ui-has-child-title\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"os-note-body\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">LINK TO LEARNING<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">View this\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/openstax.org\/l\/mandela\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener nofollow\">video of an overview of some of the psychological perspectives on personality<\/a>\u00a0to learn more.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div id=\"3525\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Define personality<\/li>\n<li>Describe early theories about personality development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm43240080\"><strong><span id=\"term688\">Personality<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways. Our personality is what makes us unique individuals. Each person has an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring, long-term characteristics and a manner in which they interacts with other individuals and the world around them. Our personalities are thought to be long term, stable, and not easily changed. The word\u00a0<em>personality<\/em>\u00a0comes from the Latin word\u00a0<em>persona<\/em>. In the ancient world, a persona was a mask worn by an actor. While we tend to think of a mask as being worn to conceal one\u2019s identity, the theatrical mask was originally used to either represent or project a specific personality trait of a character (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/11-1-what-is-personality#Figure_11_01_Masks\">Figure P.2<\/a>).<\/p>\n<div id=\"Figure_11_01_Masks\" class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 487px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"46665\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/195a9b26aea6e3cd80d87d97d609833b359eac95\" alt=\"Three masks are arranged side by side. The masks are almost identical, but with slightly different facial expressions resulting from the masks being at different angles. The first mask is tilted downward and has downcast eyes. The second mask is shown straight on and is directing its gaze slightly higher than the first. The third mask is tilted upwards so its gaze is directed more upward.\" width=\"487\" height=\"249\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure P.2\u00a0Happy, sad, impatient, shy, fearful, curious, helpful. What characteristics describe your personality?<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idm105544992\">\n<h3>Historical Perspectives<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm156209440\">The concept of personality has been studied for at least 2,000 years, beginning with Hippocrates in 370 BCE (Fazeli, 2012). Hippocrates theorized that personality traits and human behaviours are based on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids (\u201chumors\u201d) of the body: choleric temperament (yellow bile from the liver), melancholic temperament (black bile from the kidneys), sanguine temperament (red blood from the heart), and phlegmatic temperament (white phlegm from the lungs) (Clark &amp; Watson, 2008; Eysenck &amp; Eysenck, 1985; Lecci &amp; Magnavita, 2013; Noga, 2007). Centuries later, the influential Greek physician and philosopher\u00a0<span id=\"term689\" class=\"no-emphasis\">Galen<\/span>\u00a0built on Hippocrates\u2019s theory, suggesting that both diseases and personality differences could be explained by imbalances in the humors and that each person exhibits one of the four temperaments. For example, the choleric person is passionate, ambitious, and bold; the melancholic person is reserved, anxious, and unhappy; the sanguine person is joyful, eager, and optimistic; and the phlegmatic person is calm, reliable, and thoughtful (Clark &amp; Watson, 2008; Stelmack &amp; Stalikas, 1991). Galen\u2019s theory was prevalent for over 1,000 years and continued to be popular through the Middle Ages.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm47473936\">In 1780, Franz Gall, a German physician, proposed that the distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person\u2019s personality traits, character, and mental abilities (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/11-1-what-is-personality#Figure_11_01_Phrenology\">Figure P.3<\/a>). According to Gall, measuring these distances revealed the sizes of the brain areas underneath, providing information that could be used to determine whether a person was friendly, prideful, murderous, kind, good with languages, and so on. Initially, phrenology was very popular; however, it was soon discredited for lack of empirical support and has long been relegated to the status of pseudoscience (Fancher, 1979).<\/p>\n<div id=\"Figure_11_01_Phrenology\" class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 975px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"19954\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/a14732df065a5e9340583a75bec7e8e036521f7b\" alt=\"Photograph A shows the cover of the American Phrenological Journal circa 1848. Across the top it reads: \u201cAmerican Phrenological Journal.\u201d Below that it says \u201cKnow thyself.\u201d Below that is a picture of a human head facing left, with many pictures comprising the area where the brain is. Below the person\u2019s ear it says \u201cHome truths for home consumption.\u201d The lines below that read: \u201c1848,\u201d \u201cVol. X, March, No. 3,\u201d \u201cO.S. Fowler, Editor,\u201d \u201cPhrenology, Physiology, Physiognomy, Magnetism,\u201d \u201cNew York,\u201d \u201cFowlers and Wells,\u201d \u201cPhrenological cabinet, 131 Nassau-Street,\u201d and \u201cTerms $1 a year, invariably in advance. Ten cts. a Number.\u201d Photograph B shows a printed cartoon of a person in a chair with another person behind. There are three other people in the room, and the wall is decorated with various skulls. Below the picture it reads: \u201cDrawn on Stone by E.H,\u201d and \u201cThe Phrenologist.\u201d\" width=\"975\" height=\"503\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure P.3\u00a0The pseudoscience of measuring the areas of a person\u2019s skull is known as phrenology. (a) Gall developed a chart that depicted which areas of the skull corresponded to particular personality traits or characteristics (Hothersall, 1995). (b) An 1825 lithograph depicts Gall examining the skull of a young woman. (credit b: modification of work by Wellcome Library, London)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm95754240\">In the centuries after Galen, other researchers contributed to the development of his four primary temperament types, most prominently Immanuel Kant (in the 18th century) and psychologist Wilhelm\u00a0<span id=\"term690\" class=\"no-emphasis\">Wundt<\/span>\u00a0(in the 19th century) (Eysenck, 2009; Stelmack &amp; Stalikas, 1991; Wundt, 1874\/1886) (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/11-1-what-is-personality#Figure_11_01_FourTemper\">Figure P.4<\/a>). Kant agreed with Galen that everyone could be sorted into one of the four temperaments and that there was no overlap between the four categories (Eysenck, 2009). He developed a list of traits that could be used to describe the personality of a person from each of the four temperaments. However, Wundt suggested that a better description of personality could be achieved using two major axes: emotional\/nonemotional and changeable\/unchangeable. The first axis separated strong from weak emotions (the melancholic and choleric temperaments from the phlegmatic and sanguine). The second axis divided the changeable temperaments (choleric and sanguine) from the unchangeable ones (melancholic and phlegmatic) (Eysenck, 2009).<\/p>\n<div id=\"Figure_11_01_FourTemper\" class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 731px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"68113\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/f8e99849343e7abf0b2cbe63807562005005179b\" alt=\"A circle is divided vertically and horizontally into four sections by lines with arrows at the ends. Clockwise from the top, the arrows are labeled \u201cStrong Emotions,\u201d \u201cChangeable Temperaments,\u201d \u201cWeak Emotions,\u201d and \u201cUnchangeable Temperaments.\u201d The arcs around the perimeter of the circle, clockwise beginning with the top right segment are labeled \u201cCholeric,\u201d \u201cSanguine,\u201d \u201cPhlegmatic,\u201d and \u201cMelancholic.\u201d The sections inside each arc contain descriptive words. Inside the Choleric arc are the words \u201cexcitable, egocentric, exhibitionist, impulsive, histrionic, and active.\u201d Inside the Sanguine arc are the words \u201cplayful, easygoing, sociable, carefree, hopeful, and contented.\u201d Inside the Phlegmatic arc are the words \u201creasonable, principled, controlled, persistent, steadfast, and calm.\u201d Inside the Melancholic arc are the words \u201canxious, worried, unhappy, suspicious, serious, and thoughtful.\u201d\" width=\"731\" height=\"573\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure P.4\u00a0Developed from Galen\u2019s theory of the four temperaments, Kant proposed trait words to describe each temperament. Wundt later suggested the arrangement of the traits on two major axes.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm137925040\">Sigmund Freud\u2019s psychodynamic perspective of personality was the first comprehensive theory of personality, explaining a wide variety of both normal and abnormal behaviours. According to Freud, unconscious drives influenced by sex and aggression, along with childhood sexuality, are the forces that influence our personality.\u00a0<span id=\"term691\" class=\"no-emphasis\">Freud<\/span>\u00a0attracted many followers who modified his ideas to create new theories about personality. These theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but they reduced the emphasis on sex and focused more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality. The perspective of personality proposed by Freud and his followers was the dominant theory of personality for the first half of the 20th century.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm36840480\">Other major theories then emerged, including the learning, humanistic, biological, evolutionary, trait, and cultural perspectives. In this chapter, we will explore these various perspectives on personality in depth.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp33274256\" class=\"psychology link-to-learning ui-has-child-title\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"os-note-body\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff\">LINK TO LEARNING<\/span><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">View this\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/openstax.org\/l\/mandela\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener nofollow\">video of an overview of some of the psychological perspectives on personality<\/a>\u00a0to learn more.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n","protected":false},"author":14,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":39,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/639"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/14"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/639\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1779,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/639\/revisions\/1779"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/39"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/639\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=639"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=639"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=639"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=639"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}