{"id":670,"date":"2020-06-17T16:26:02","date_gmt":"2020-06-17T16:26:02","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=670"},"modified":"2021-01-05T18:48:59","modified_gmt":"2021-01-05T18:48:59","slug":"attitudes-and-persuasion","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/chapter\/attitudes-and-persuasion\/","title":{"raw":"Attitudes and Persuasion","rendered":"Attitudes and Persuasion"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"PageContent-ny9bj0-0 iapMdy\">\r\n<div id=\"main-content\" class=\"MainContent__HideOutline-sc-6yy1if-0 bdVAq\">\r\n<div id=\"1d4f147a-fd14-4905-986b-0c7c1588bb7c\">\r\n<div id=\"61560\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define attitude<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe how people\u2019s attitudes are internally changed through cognitive dissonance<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how people\u2019s attitudes are externally changed through persuasion<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the peripheral and central routes to persuasion<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp208844688\">Social psychologists have documented how the power of the situation can influence our behaviours. Now we turn to how the power of the situation can influence our attitudes and beliefs.\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term775\">Attitude<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0is our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. We have attitudes for many things ranging from products that we might pick up in the supermarket to people around the world to political policies. Typically, attitudes are favourable or unfavourable: positive or negative (Eagly &amp; Chaiken, 1993). And, they have three components: an affective component (feelings), a behavioural component (the effect of the attitude on behaviour), and a cognitive component (belief and knowledge) (Rosenberg &amp; Hovland, 1960).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp126902064\">For example, you may hold a positive attitude toward recycling. This attitude should result in positive feelings toward recycling (such as \u201cIt makes me feel good to recycle\u201d or \u201cI enjoy knowing that I make a small difference in reducing the amount of waste that ends up in landfills\u201d). Certainly, this attitude should be reflected in our behaviour: You actually recycle as often as you can. Finally, this attitude will be reflected in favourable thoughts (for example, \u201cRecycling is good for the environment\u201d or \u201cRecycling is the responsible thing to do\u201d).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp58986352\">Our attitudes and beliefs are not only influenced by external forces, but also by internal influences that we control. Like our behaviour, our attitudes and thoughts are not always changed by situational pressures, but they can be consciously changed by our own free will. In this section we discuss the conditions under which we would want to change our own attitudes and beliefs.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp84724928\">\r\n<h3>What is Cognitive Dissonance?<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp67191088\">Social psychologists have documented that feeling good about ourselves and maintaining positive self-esteem is a powerful motivator of human behaviour (Tavris &amp; Aronson, 2008). In the United States, members of the predominant culture typically think very highly of themselves and view themselves as good people who are above average on many desirable traits (Ehrlinger, Gilovich, &amp; Ross, 2005). Often, our behaviour, attitudes, and beliefs are affected when we experience a threat to our self-esteem or positive self-image. Psychologist Leon Festinger (1957) defined\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term776\">cognitive dissonance<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0as psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviours, or cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, or opinions). Festinger\u2019s theory of cognitive dissonance states that when we experience a conflict in our behaviours, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to our positive self-perceptions, we experience psychological discomfort (dissonance). For example, if you believe smoking is bad for your health but you continue to smoke, you experience conflict between your belief and behaviour (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_dissonance\">Figure SP.10<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_dissonance\" class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"975\"]<img id=\"30849\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/c512eae3c65966d84b39be019e12c84c5b815c0a\" alt=\"A diagram shows the process of cognitive dissonance. Two disparate statements (\u201cI am a smoker\u201d and \u201cSmoking is bad for your health\u201d) are joined as an example of cognitive dissonance. A flow diagram joins them in a process labeled, \u201cRemove dissonance tension,\u201d with two resulting flows. The first flow path shows the warning on a pack of cigarettes with a checkmark imposed over the image that is labeled, \u201cSmoking is bad for your health.\u201d The path then shows a photograph of an arm with a nicotine patch that is labeled, \u201cI quit smoking.\u201d The second flow path shows the warning on a pack of cigarettes with an X imposed over the image and is labeled, \u201cResearch is inconclusive,\u201d then shows a photograph of a person smoking labeled, \u201cI am still a smoker.\u201d\" width=\"975\" height=\"875\" \/> Figure SP.10 Cognitive dissonance is aroused by inconsistent beliefs and behaviours. Believing cigarettes are bad for your health, but smoking cigarettes anyway, can cause cognitive dissonance. To reduce cognitive dissonance, individuals can change their behaviour, as in quitting smoking, or change their belief, such as discounting the evidence that smoking is harmful. (credit \u201ccigarettes\u201d: modification of work by CDC\/Debora Cartagena; \u201cpatch\u201d: modification of \"RegBarc\"\/Wikimedia Commons; \u201csmoking\u201d: modification of work by Tim Parkinson)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp72564160\">Later research documented that only conflicting cognitions that threaten individuals\u2019 positive self-image cause dissonance (Greenwald &amp; Ronis, 1978). Additional research found that dissonance is not only psychologically uncomfortable but also can cause physiological arousal (Croyle &amp; Cooper, 1983) and activate regions of the brain important in emotions and cognitive functioning (van Veen, Krug, Schooler, &amp; Carter, 2009). When we experience cognitive dissonance, we are motivated to decrease it because it is psychologically, physically, and mentally uncomfortable. We can reduce\u00a0<span id=\"term777\" class=\"no-emphasis\">cognitive dissonance<\/span>\u00a0by bringing our cognitions, attitudes, and behaviours in line\u2014that is, making them harmonious. This can be done in different ways, such as:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul id=\"fs-idp53180464\">\r\n \t<li>changing our discrepant behaviour (e.g., stop smoking),<\/li>\r\n \t<li>changing our cognitions through rationalization or denial (e.g., telling ourselves that health risks can be reduced by smoking filtered cigarettes),<\/li>\r\n \t<li>adding a new cognition (e.g., \u201cSmoking suppresses my appetite so I don\u2019t become overweight, which is good for my health.\u201d).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp74906656\">A classic example of cognitive dissonance is Elian, a 20-year-old who enlists in the military. During boot camp\u00a0 is awakened at 5:00 a.m., is chronically sleep deprived, yelled at, covered in sand flea bites, physically bruised and battered, and mentally exhausted (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_marines\">Figure SP.11<\/a>). It gets worse. Recruits that make it to week 11 of boot camp have to do 54 hours of continuous training.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_marines\" class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"488\"]<img id=\"25839\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/b0754fee4473e193c5b05ed41fa142d1588ffde7\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person doing pushups while a military leader stands over the person; other people are doing jumping jacks in the background.\" width=\"488\" height=\"325\" \/> Figure SP.11 A person who has chosen a difficult path must deal with cognitive dissonance in addition to many other discomforts. (credit: Tyler J. Bolken)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp144499424\">Not surprisingly, Elian is miserable. No one likes to be miserable. In this type of situation, people can change their beliefs, their attitudes, or their behaviours. The last option, a change of behaviours, is not available to Elian. He has signed on to the military for four years, and\u00a0 cannot legally leave.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp131567584\">If Elian keeps thinking about how miserable they are, it is going to be a very long four years. Elian will be in a constant state of cognitive dissonance. As an alternative to this misery, Elian can change their beliefs or attitudes. Elian can tell themselves, \u201cI am becoming stronger, healthier, and sharper. I am learning discipline and how to defend myself and my country. What I am doing is really important.\u201d If this is their belief, Elian will realize that they are becoming stronger through their challenges. Then they will feel better and not experience cognitive dissonance, which is an uncomfortable state.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp103587888\"><section id=\"fs-idp36462064\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp769664\" class=\"psychology link-to-learning ui-has-child-title\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"os-note-body\">\r\n\r\n<strong><a id=\"TTcogdissonance\"><\/a>TRICKY TOPIC: COGNITIVE DISSONANCE\r\n<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/hNEV-RxcKmk[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idp103587888\"><section id=\"fs-idp36462064\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp769664\" class=\"psychology link-to-learning ui-has-child-title\"><section><em><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">If the video above does not load, click here:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/hNEV-RxcKmk\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/hNEV-RxcKmk<\/a>\r\n<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">For a full transcript of this video, click <a href=\"\/intropsychneuro\/back-matter\/appendix\/#cogdissonance\">here<\/a><\/span><\/em><\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idp84724928\"><section id=\"fs-idp68319920\">\r\n<h4>The Effect of Initiation<\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp125324736\">The military example demonstrates the observation that a difficult\u00a0<span id=\"term778\" class=\"no-emphasis\">initiation<\/span>\u00a0into a group influences us to like the group more. Another social psychology concept,\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term779\">justification of effort<\/span><\/strong>, suggests that we value goals and achievements that we put a lot of effort into. According to this theory, if something is difficult for us to achieve, we believe it is more worthwhile. For example, if you move to an apartment and spend hours assembling a dresser you bought from Ikea, you will value that more than a fancier dresser your parents bought you. We do not want to have wasted time and effort to join a group that we eventually leave. A classic experiment by Aronson and Mills (1959) demonstrated this justification of effort effect. College students volunteered to join a campus group that would meet regularly to discuss the psychology of sex. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: no initiation, an easy initiation, and a difficult initiation into the group. After participating in the first discussion, which was deliberately made very boring, participants rated how much they liked the group. Participants who underwent a difficult initiation process to join the group rated the group more favourably than did participants with an easy initiation or no initiation (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_justification\">Figure SP.12<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_justification\" class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"649\"]<img id=\"24378\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/22ddaa3be79c2875dab1e1b248b49da699de7b87\" alt=\"A bar graph has an x-axis labeled, \u201cDifficulty of initiation\u201d and a y-axis labeled, \u201cRelative magnitude of liking a group.\u201d The liking of the group is low to moderate for the groups whose difficulty of initiation was \u201cnone\u201d or \u201ceasy,\u201d but high for the group whose difficulty of initiation was \u201cdifficult.\u201d\" width=\"649\" height=\"274\" \/> Figure SP.12 Justification of effort has a distinct effect on a person liking a group. Students in the difficult initiation condition liked the group more than students in other conditions due to the justification of effort.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Similar effects can be seen in a more recent study of how student effort affects course evaluations. Heckert, Latier, Ringwald-Burton, and Drazen (2006) surveyed 463 undergraduates enrolled in courses at a midwestern university about the amount of effort that their courses required of them. In addition, the students were also asked to evaluate various aspects of the course. Given what you\u2019ve just read, it will come as no surprise that those courses that were associated with the highest level of effort were evaluated as being more valuable than those that did not. Furthermore, students indicated that they learned more in courses that required more effort, regardless of the grades that they received in those courses (Heckert et al., 2006).<\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp154425008\">Besides the classic military example and group initiation, can you think of other examples of\u00a0<span id=\"term780\" class=\"no-emphasis\">cognitive dissonance<\/span>? Here is one: Addison and Adrian live in Fairfield County, Connecticut, which is one of the wealthiest areas in the United States and has a very high cost of living. Addison telecommutes from home and Adrian does not work outside of the home. They rent a very small house for more than $3000 a month. Adrian shops at consignment stores for clothes and economizes when possible. They complain that they never have any money and that they cannot buy anything new. When asked why they do not move to a less expensive location, since Addison telecommutes, they respond that Fairfield County is beautiful, they love the beaches, and they feel comfortable there. How does the theory of cognitive dissonance apply to Addison and Adrian\u2019s choices?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idp122571808\">\r\n<h3>Persuasion<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp140530848\">In the previous section we discussed that the motivation to reduce cognitive dissonance leads us to change our attitudes, behaviours, and\/or cognitions to make them consonant.\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term781\">Persuasion<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0is the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication. Much of the persuasion we experience comes from outside forces. How do people convince others to change their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_persuasion\">Figure SP.13<\/a>)? What communications do you receive that attempt to persuade you to change your attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_persuasion\" class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"488\"]<img id=\"16582\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/b7f0e2f81afdb0dae70bb08d4bacc1fe22b6da70\" alt=\"A photograph shows the back of a car that is covered in numerous bumper stickers.\" width=\"488\" height=\"366\" \/> Figure SP.13 We encounter attempts at persuasion attempts everywhere. Persuasion is not limited to formal advertising; we are confronted with it throughout our everyday world. (credit: Robert Couse-Baker)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A subfield of social psychology studies persuasion and social influence, providing us with a plethora of information on how humans can be persuaded by others.<\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp52107072\">\r\n<h4>Yale Attitude Change Approach<\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp140437664\">The topic of persuasion has been one of the most extensively researched areas in social psychology (Fiske et al., 2010). During the Second World War, Carl\u00a0<span id=\"term782\" class=\"no-emphasis\">Hovland<\/span>\u00a0extensively researched persuasion for the U.S. Army. After the war, Hovland continued his exploration of persuasion at Yale University. Out of this work came a model called the\u00a0<span id=\"term783\" class=\"no-emphasis\">Yale attitude change approach<\/span>, which describes the conditions under which people tend to change their attitudes. Hovland demonstrated that certain features of the source of a persuasive message, the content of the message, and the characteristics of the audience will influence the persuasiveness of a message (Hovland, Janis, &amp; Kelley, 1953).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp47706704\">Features of the source of the persuasive message include the credibility of the speaker (Hovland &amp; Weiss, 1951) and the physical attractiveness of the speaker (Eagly &amp; Chaiken, 1975; Petty, Wegener, &amp; Fabrigar, 1997). Thus, speakers who are credible, or have expertise on the topic, and who are deemed as trustworthy are more persuasive than less credible speakers. Similarly, more attractive speakers are more persuasive than less attractive speakers. The use of famous actors and athletes to advertise products on television and in print relies on this principle. The immediate and long term impact of the persuasion also depends, however, on the credibility of the messenger (Kumkale &amp; Albarrac\u00edn, 2004).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp190457232\">Features of the message itself that affect persuasion include subtlety (the quality of being important, but not obvious) (Petty &amp; Cacioppo, 1986; Walster &amp; Festinger, 1962); sidedness (that is, having more than one side) (Crowley &amp; Hoyer, 1994; Igou &amp; Bless, 2003; Lumsdaine &amp; Janis, 1953); timing (Haugtvedt &amp; Wegener, 1994; Miller &amp; Campbell, 1959), and whether both sides are presented. Messages that are more subtle are more persuasive than direct messages. Arguments that occur first, such as in a debate, are more influential if messages are given back-to-back. However, if there is a delay after the first message, and before the audience needs to make a decision, the last message presented will tend to be more persuasive (Miller &amp; Campbell, 1959).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp215462736\">Features of the audience that affect persuasion are attention (Albarrac\u00edn &amp; Wyer, 2001; Festinger &amp; Maccoby, 1964), intelligence, self-esteem (Rhodes &amp; Wood, 1992), and age (Krosnick &amp; Alwin, 1989). In order to be persuaded, audience members must be paying attention. People with lower intelligence are more easily persuaded than people with higher intelligence; whereas people with moderate self-esteem are more easily persuaded than people with higher or lower self-esteem (Rhodes &amp; Wood, 1992). Finally, younger adults aged 18\u201325 are more persuadable than older adults.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp146951568\">\r\n<h4>Elaboration Likelihood Model<\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp182013696\">An especially popular model that describes the dynamics of persuasion is the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Petty &amp; Cacioppo, 1986). The\u00a0<span id=\"term784\" class=\"no-emphasis\">elaboration likelihood model<\/span>\u00a0considers the variables of the attitude change approach\u2014that is, features of the source of the persuasive message, contents of the message, and characteristics of the audience are used to determine when attitude change will occur. According to the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, there are two main routes that play a role in delivering a persuasive message: central and peripheral (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_Persuasion2\">Figure SP.14<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_Persuasion2\" class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"975\"]<img id=\"17312\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/6322bc876ce2590793007981eb3b8e4b66dbb75a\" alt=\"A diagram shows two routes of persuasion. A box on the left is labeled \u201cpersuasive message\u201d and arrows from the box separate into two routes: the central and peripheral routes, each with boxes describing the characteristics of the audience, processing, and persuasion. The audience is \u201cmotivated, analytical\u201d in the central route, and \u201cnot motivated, not analytical\u201d in the peripheral route. Processing in the central route is \u201chigh effort; evaluate message\u201d and in the peripheral route is \u201clow effort; persuaded by cues outside of message.\u201d Persuasion in the central route is \u201clasting change in attitude\u201d and in the peripheral route is \u201ctemporary change in attitude.\u201d\" width=\"975\" height=\"342\" \/> Figure SP.14\u00a0Persuasion can take one of two paths, and the durability of the end result depends on the path.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp113021120\">The\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term785\">central route<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>is logic driven and uses data and facts to convince people of an argument\u2019s worthiness. For example, a car company seeking to persuade you to purchase their model will emphasize the car\u2019s safety features and fuel economy. This is a direct route to persuasion that focuses on the quality of the information. In order for the central route of persuasion to be effective in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviours, the argument must be strong and, if successful, will result in lasting attitude change.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp95514640\">The central route to persuasion works best when the target of persuasion, or the audience, is analytical and willing to engage in processing of the information. From an advertiser\u2019s perspective, what products would be best sold using the central route to persuasion? What audience would most likely be influenced to buy the product? One example is buying a computer. It is likely, for example, that small business owners might be especially influenced by the focus on the computer\u2019s quality and features such as processing speed and memory capacity.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp56938672\">The\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term786\">peripheral route<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0is an indirect route that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message (Petty &amp; Cacioppo, 1986). Instead of focusing on the facts and a product\u2019s quality, the peripheral route relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement. For example, having a popular athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to purchase the shoes. This route to attitude change does not require much effort or information processing. This method of persuasion may promote positivity toward the message or product, but it typically results in less permanent attitude or behaviour change. The audience does not need to be analytical or motivated to process the message. In fact, a peripheral route to persuasion may not even be noticed by the audience, for example in the strategy of product placement. Product placement refers to putting a product with a clear brand name or brand identity in a TV show or movie to promote the product (Gupta &amp; Lord, 1998). For example, one season of the reality series\u00a0<em>American Idol<\/em>\u00a0prominently showed the panel of judges drinking out of cups that displayed the Coca-Cola logo. What other products would be best sold using the peripheral route to persuasion? Another example is clothing: A retailer may focus on celebrities that are wearing the same style of clothing.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp55941504\">\r\n<h4>Foot-in-the-door Technique<\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp101226496\">Researchers have tested many persuasion strategies that are effective in selling products and changing people\u2019s attitude, ideas, and behaviours. One effective strategy is the <strong>foot-in-the-door technique<\/strong> (Cialdini, 2001; Pliner, Hart, Kohl, &amp; Saari, 1974). Using the\u00a0<span id=\"term787\">foot-in-the-door technique<\/span>, the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favour or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favour or purchase of a bigger item. The foot-in-the-door technique was demonstrated in a study by Freedman and Fraser (1966) in which participants who agreed to post small sign in their yard or sign a petition were more likely to agree to put a large sign in their yard than people who declined the first request (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_signs\">Figure SP.15<\/a>). Research on this technique also illustrates the principle of consistency (Cialdini, 2001): Our past behaviour often directs our future behaviour, and we have a desire to maintain consistency once we have a committed to a behaviour.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_signs\" class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"650\"]<img id=\"36508\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/65c62cdd88e10b7a06653592b2092ba918c83694\" alt=\"Photograph A shows a campaign button. Photograph B shows a yard filled with numerous signs.\" width=\"650\" height=\"285\" \/> Figure SP.15 With the foot-in-the-door technique, getting someone to agree to a small request such as (a) wearing a campaign button can make them more likely to agree to a larger request, such as (b) putting campaigns signs in your yard. (credit a: modification of work by Joe Crawford; credit b: modification of work by \"shutterblog\"\/Flickr)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp211174336\">A common application of foot-in-the-door is when teens ask their parents for a small permission (for example, extending curfew by a half hour) and then asking them for something larger. Having granted the smaller request increases the likelihood that parents will acquiesce with the later, larger request.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp72520400\">How would a store owner use the foot-in-the-door technique to sell you an expensive product? For example, say that you are buying the latest model smartphone, and the salesperson suggests you purchase the best data plan. You agree to this. The salesperson then suggests a bigger purchase\u2014the three-year extended warranty. After agreeing to the smaller request, you are more likely to also agree to the larger request. You may have encountered this if you have bought a car. When salespeople realize that a buyer intends to purchase a certain model, they might try to get the customer to pay for many or most available options on the car. Another example of the foot-in-the-door technique would be applied to an individual in the market for a used car who decides to buy a fully loaded new car. Why? Because the salesperson convinced the buyer that they need a car that has all of the safety features that were not available in the used car.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"PrevNextBar__BarWrapper-sc-13m2i12-3 fEZPiF\"><\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"PageContent-ny9bj0-0 iapMdy\">\n<div id=\"main-content\" class=\"MainContent__HideOutline-sc-6yy1if-0 bdVAq\">\n<div id=\"1d4f147a-fd14-4905-986b-0c7c1588bb7c\">\n<div id=\"61560\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Define attitude<\/li>\n<li>Describe how people\u2019s attitudes are internally changed through cognitive dissonance<\/li>\n<li>Explain how people\u2019s attitudes are externally changed through persuasion<\/li>\n<li>Describe the peripheral and central routes to persuasion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp208844688\">Social psychologists have documented how the power of the situation can influence our behaviours. Now we turn to how the power of the situation can influence our attitudes and beliefs.\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term775\">Attitude<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0is our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. We have attitudes for many things ranging from products that we might pick up in the supermarket to people around the world to political policies. Typically, attitudes are favourable or unfavourable: positive or negative (Eagly &amp; Chaiken, 1993). And, they have three components: an affective component (feelings), a behavioural component (the effect of the attitude on behaviour), and a cognitive component (belief and knowledge) (Rosenberg &amp; Hovland, 1960).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp126902064\">For example, you may hold a positive attitude toward recycling. This attitude should result in positive feelings toward recycling (such as \u201cIt makes me feel good to recycle\u201d or \u201cI enjoy knowing that I make a small difference in reducing the amount of waste that ends up in landfills\u201d). Certainly, this attitude should be reflected in our behaviour: You actually recycle as often as you can. Finally, this attitude will be reflected in favourable thoughts (for example, \u201cRecycling is good for the environment\u201d or \u201cRecycling is the responsible thing to do\u201d).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp58986352\">Our attitudes and beliefs are not only influenced by external forces, but also by internal influences that we control. Like our behaviour, our attitudes and thoughts are not always changed by situational pressures, but they can be consciously changed by our own free will. In this section we discuss the conditions under which we would want to change our own attitudes and beliefs.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idp84724928\">\n<h3>What is Cognitive Dissonance?<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp67191088\">Social psychologists have documented that feeling good about ourselves and maintaining positive self-esteem is a powerful motivator of human behaviour (Tavris &amp; Aronson, 2008). In the United States, members of the predominant culture typically think very highly of themselves and view themselves as good people who are above average on many desirable traits (Ehrlinger, Gilovich, &amp; Ross, 2005). Often, our behaviour, attitudes, and beliefs are affected when we experience a threat to our self-esteem or positive self-image. Psychologist Leon Festinger (1957) defined\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term776\">cognitive dissonance<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0as psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviours, or cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, or opinions). Festinger\u2019s theory of cognitive dissonance states that when we experience a conflict in our behaviours, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to our positive self-perceptions, we experience psychological discomfort (dissonance). For example, if you believe smoking is bad for your health but you continue to smoke, you experience conflict between your belief and behaviour (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_dissonance\">Figure SP.10<\/a>).<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_dissonance\" class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 975px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"30849\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/c512eae3c65966d84b39be019e12c84c5b815c0a\" alt=\"A diagram shows the process of cognitive dissonance. Two disparate statements (\u201cI am a smoker\u201d and \u201cSmoking is bad for your health\u201d) are joined as an example of cognitive dissonance. A flow diagram joins them in a process labeled, \u201cRemove dissonance tension,\u201d with two resulting flows. The first flow path shows the warning on a pack of cigarettes with a checkmark imposed over the image that is labeled, \u201cSmoking is bad for your health.\u201d The path then shows a photograph of an arm with a nicotine patch that is labeled, \u201cI quit smoking.\u201d The second flow path shows the warning on a pack of cigarettes with an X imposed over the image and is labeled, \u201cResearch is inconclusive,\u201d then shows a photograph of a person smoking labeled, \u201cI am still a smoker.\u201d\" width=\"975\" height=\"875\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure SP.10 Cognitive dissonance is aroused by inconsistent beliefs and behaviours. Believing cigarettes are bad for your health, but smoking cigarettes anyway, can cause cognitive dissonance. To reduce cognitive dissonance, individuals can change their behaviour, as in quitting smoking, or change their belief, such as discounting the evidence that smoking is harmful. (credit \u201ccigarettes\u201d: modification of work by CDC\/Debora Cartagena; \u201cpatch\u201d: modification of &#8220;RegBarc&#8221;\/Wikimedia Commons; \u201csmoking\u201d: modification of work by Tim Parkinson)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp72564160\">Later research documented that only conflicting cognitions that threaten individuals\u2019 positive self-image cause dissonance (Greenwald &amp; Ronis, 1978). Additional research found that dissonance is not only psychologically uncomfortable but also can cause physiological arousal (Croyle &amp; Cooper, 1983) and activate regions of the brain important in emotions and cognitive functioning (van Veen, Krug, Schooler, &amp; Carter, 2009). When we experience cognitive dissonance, we are motivated to decrease it because it is psychologically, physically, and mentally uncomfortable. We can reduce\u00a0<span id=\"term777\" class=\"no-emphasis\">cognitive dissonance<\/span>\u00a0by bringing our cognitions, attitudes, and behaviours in line\u2014that is, making them harmonious. This can be done in different ways, such as:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"fs-idp53180464\">\n<li>changing our discrepant behaviour (e.g., stop smoking),<\/li>\n<li>changing our cognitions through rationalization or denial (e.g., telling ourselves that health risks can be reduced by smoking filtered cigarettes),<\/li>\n<li>adding a new cognition (e.g., \u201cSmoking suppresses my appetite so I don\u2019t become overweight, which is good for my health.\u201d).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p id=\"fs-idp74906656\">A classic example of cognitive dissonance is Elian, a 20-year-old who enlists in the military. During boot camp\u00a0 is awakened at 5:00 a.m., is chronically sleep deprived, yelled at, covered in sand flea bites, physically bruised and battered, and mentally exhausted (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_marines\">Figure SP.11<\/a>). It gets worse. Recruits that make it to week 11 of boot camp have to do 54 hours of continuous training.<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_marines\" class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 488px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"25839\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/b0754fee4473e193c5b05ed41fa142d1588ffde7\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person doing pushups while a military leader stands over the person; other people are doing jumping jacks in the background.\" width=\"488\" height=\"325\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure SP.11 A person who has chosen a difficult path must deal with cognitive dissonance in addition to many other discomforts. (credit: Tyler J. Bolken)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp144499424\">Not surprisingly, Elian is miserable. No one likes to be miserable. In this type of situation, people can change their beliefs, their attitudes, or their behaviours. The last option, a change of behaviours, is not available to Elian. He has signed on to the military for four years, and\u00a0 cannot legally leave.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp131567584\">If Elian keeps thinking about how miserable they are, it is going to be a very long four years. Elian will be in a constant state of cognitive dissonance. As an alternative to this misery, Elian can change their beliefs or attitudes. Elian can tell themselves, \u201cI am becoming stronger, healthier, and sharper. I am learning discipline and how to defend myself and my country. What I am doing is really important.\u201d If this is their belief, Elian will realize that they are becoming stronger through their challenges. Then they will feel better and not experience cognitive dissonance, which is an uncomfortable state.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp103587888\">\n<section id=\"fs-idp36462064\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp769664\" class=\"psychology link-to-learning ui-has-child-title\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"os-note-body\">\n<p><strong><a id=\"TTcogdissonance\"><\/a>TRICKY TOPIC: COGNITIVE DISSONANCE<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Tricky Topics: Cognitive Dissonance\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/hNEV-RxcKmk?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<section>\n<div class=\"psychology link-to-learning ui-has-child-title\">\n<section><em><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">If the video above does not load, click here:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/hNEV-RxcKmk\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/hNEV-RxcKmk<\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">For a full transcript of this video, click <a href=\"\/intropsychneuro\/back-matter\/appendix\/#cogdissonance\">here<\/a><\/span><\/em><\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp68319920\">\n<h4>The Effect of Initiation<\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idp125324736\">The military example demonstrates the observation that a difficult\u00a0<span id=\"term778\" class=\"no-emphasis\">initiation<\/span>\u00a0into a group influences us to like the group more. Another social psychology concept,\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term779\">justification of effort<\/span><\/strong>, suggests that we value goals and achievements that we put a lot of effort into. According to this theory, if something is difficult for us to achieve, we believe it is more worthwhile. For example, if you move to an apartment and spend hours assembling a dresser you bought from Ikea, you will value that more than a fancier dresser your parents bought you. We do not want to have wasted time and effort to join a group that we eventually leave. A classic experiment by Aronson and Mills (1959) demonstrated this justification of effort effect. College students volunteered to join a campus group that would meet regularly to discuss the psychology of sex. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: no initiation, an easy initiation, and a difficult initiation into the group. After participating in the first discussion, which was deliberately made very boring, participants rated how much they liked the group. Participants who underwent a difficult initiation process to join the group rated the group more favourably than did participants with an easy initiation or no initiation (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_justification\">Figure SP.12<\/a>).<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_justification\" class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 649px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"24378\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/22ddaa3be79c2875dab1e1b248b49da699de7b87\" alt=\"A bar graph has an x-axis labeled, \u201cDifficulty of initiation\u201d and a y-axis labeled, \u201cRelative magnitude of liking a group.\u201d The liking of the group is low to moderate for the groups whose difficulty of initiation was \u201cnone\u201d or \u201ceasy,\u201d but high for the group whose difficulty of initiation was \u201cdifficult.\u201d\" width=\"649\" height=\"274\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure SP.12 Justification of effort has a distinct effect on a person liking a group. Students in the difficult initiation condition liked the group more than students in other conditions due to the justification of effort.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Similar effects can be seen in a more recent study of how student effort affects course evaluations. Heckert, Latier, Ringwald-Burton, and Drazen (2006) surveyed 463 undergraduates enrolled in courses at a midwestern university about the amount of effort that their courses required of them. In addition, the students were also asked to evaluate various aspects of the course. Given what you\u2019ve just read, it will come as no surprise that those courses that were associated with the highest level of effort were evaluated as being more valuable than those that did not. Furthermore, students indicated that they learned more in courses that required more effort, regardless of the grades that they received in those courses (Heckert et al., 2006).<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp154425008\">Besides the classic military example and group initiation, can you think of other examples of\u00a0<span id=\"term780\" class=\"no-emphasis\">cognitive dissonance<\/span>? Here is one: Addison and Adrian live in Fairfield County, Connecticut, which is one of the wealthiest areas in the United States and has a very high cost of living. Addison telecommutes from home and Adrian does not work outside of the home. They rent a very small house for more than $3000 a month. Adrian shops at consignment stores for clothes and economizes when possible. They complain that they never have any money and that they cannot buy anything new. When asked why they do not move to a less expensive location, since Addison telecommutes, they respond that Fairfield County is beautiful, they love the beaches, and they feel comfortable there. How does the theory of cognitive dissonance apply to Addison and Adrian\u2019s choices?<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp122571808\">\n<h3>Persuasion<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp140530848\">In the previous section we discussed that the motivation to reduce cognitive dissonance leads us to change our attitudes, behaviours, and\/or cognitions to make them consonant.\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term781\">Persuasion<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0is the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication. Much of the persuasion we experience comes from outside forces. How do people convince others to change their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_persuasion\">Figure SP.13<\/a>)? What communications do you receive that attempt to persuade you to change your attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours?<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_persuasion\" class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 488px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"16582\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/b7f0e2f81afdb0dae70bb08d4bacc1fe22b6da70\" alt=\"A photograph shows the back of a car that is covered in numerous bumper stickers.\" width=\"488\" height=\"366\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure SP.13 We encounter attempts at persuasion attempts everywhere. Persuasion is not limited to formal advertising; we are confronted with it throughout our everyday world. (credit: Robert Couse-Baker)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A subfield of social psychology studies persuasion and social influence, providing us with a plethora of information on how humans can be persuaded by others.<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idp52107072\">\n<h4>Yale Attitude Change Approach<\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idp140437664\">The topic of persuasion has been one of the most extensively researched areas in social psychology (Fiske et al., 2010). During the Second World War, Carl\u00a0<span id=\"term782\" class=\"no-emphasis\">Hovland<\/span>\u00a0extensively researched persuasion for the U.S. Army. After the war, Hovland continued his exploration of persuasion at Yale University. Out of this work came a model called the\u00a0<span id=\"term783\" class=\"no-emphasis\">Yale attitude change approach<\/span>, which describes the conditions under which people tend to change their attitudes. Hovland demonstrated that certain features of the source of a persuasive message, the content of the message, and the characteristics of the audience will influence the persuasiveness of a message (Hovland, Janis, &amp; Kelley, 1953).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp47706704\">Features of the source of the persuasive message include the credibility of the speaker (Hovland &amp; Weiss, 1951) and the physical attractiveness of the speaker (Eagly &amp; Chaiken, 1975; Petty, Wegener, &amp; Fabrigar, 1997). Thus, speakers who are credible, or have expertise on the topic, and who are deemed as trustworthy are more persuasive than less credible speakers. Similarly, more attractive speakers are more persuasive than less attractive speakers. The use of famous actors and athletes to advertise products on television and in print relies on this principle. The immediate and long term impact of the persuasion also depends, however, on the credibility of the messenger (Kumkale &amp; Albarrac\u00edn, 2004).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp190457232\">Features of the message itself that affect persuasion include subtlety (the quality of being important, but not obvious) (Petty &amp; Cacioppo, 1986; Walster &amp; Festinger, 1962); sidedness (that is, having more than one side) (Crowley &amp; Hoyer, 1994; Igou &amp; Bless, 2003; Lumsdaine &amp; Janis, 1953); timing (Haugtvedt &amp; Wegener, 1994; Miller &amp; Campbell, 1959), and whether both sides are presented. Messages that are more subtle are more persuasive than direct messages. Arguments that occur first, such as in a debate, are more influential if messages are given back-to-back. However, if there is a delay after the first message, and before the audience needs to make a decision, the last message presented will tend to be more persuasive (Miller &amp; Campbell, 1959).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp215462736\">Features of the audience that affect persuasion are attention (Albarrac\u00edn &amp; Wyer, 2001; Festinger &amp; Maccoby, 1964), intelligence, self-esteem (Rhodes &amp; Wood, 1992), and age (Krosnick &amp; Alwin, 1989). In order to be persuaded, audience members must be paying attention. People with lower intelligence are more easily persuaded than people with higher intelligence; whereas people with moderate self-esteem are more easily persuaded than people with higher or lower self-esteem (Rhodes &amp; Wood, 1992). Finally, younger adults aged 18\u201325 are more persuadable than older adults.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp146951568\">\n<h4>Elaboration Likelihood Model<\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idp182013696\">An especially popular model that describes the dynamics of persuasion is the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Petty &amp; Cacioppo, 1986). The\u00a0<span id=\"term784\" class=\"no-emphasis\">elaboration likelihood model<\/span>\u00a0considers the variables of the attitude change approach\u2014that is, features of the source of the persuasive message, contents of the message, and characteristics of the audience are used to determine when attitude change will occur. According to the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, there are two main routes that play a role in delivering a persuasive message: central and peripheral (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_Persuasion2\">Figure SP.14<\/a>).<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_Persuasion2\" class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 975px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"17312\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/6322bc876ce2590793007981eb3b8e4b66dbb75a\" alt=\"A diagram shows two routes of persuasion. A box on the left is labeled \u201cpersuasive message\u201d and arrows from the box separate into two routes: the central and peripheral routes, each with boxes describing the characteristics of the audience, processing, and persuasion. The audience is \u201cmotivated, analytical\u201d in the central route, and \u201cnot motivated, not analytical\u201d in the peripheral route. Processing in the central route is \u201chigh effort; evaluate message\u201d and in the peripheral route is \u201clow effort; persuaded by cues outside of message.\u201d Persuasion in the central route is \u201clasting change in attitude\u201d and in the peripheral route is \u201ctemporary change in attitude.\u201d\" width=\"975\" height=\"342\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure SP.14\u00a0Persuasion can take one of two paths, and the durability of the end result depends on the path.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp113021120\">The\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term785\">central route<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>is logic driven and uses data and facts to convince people of an argument\u2019s worthiness. For example, a car company seeking to persuade you to purchase their model will emphasize the car\u2019s safety features and fuel economy. This is a direct route to persuasion that focuses on the quality of the information. In order for the central route of persuasion to be effective in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviours, the argument must be strong and, if successful, will result in lasting attitude change.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp95514640\">The central route to persuasion works best when the target of persuasion, or the audience, is analytical and willing to engage in processing of the information. From an advertiser\u2019s perspective, what products would be best sold using the central route to persuasion? What audience would most likely be influenced to buy the product? One example is buying a computer. It is likely, for example, that small business owners might be especially influenced by the focus on the computer\u2019s quality and features such as processing speed and memory capacity.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp56938672\">The\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term786\">peripheral route<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0is an indirect route that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message (Petty &amp; Cacioppo, 1986). Instead of focusing on the facts and a product\u2019s quality, the peripheral route relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement. For example, having a popular athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to purchase the shoes. This route to attitude change does not require much effort or information processing. This method of persuasion may promote positivity toward the message or product, but it typically results in less permanent attitude or behaviour change. The audience does not need to be analytical or motivated to process the message. In fact, a peripheral route to persuasion may not even be noticed by the audience, for example in the strategy of product placement. Product placement refers to putting a product with a clear brand name or brand identity in a TV show or movie to promote the product (Gupta &amp; Lord, 1998). For example, one season of the reality series\u00a0<em>American Idol<\/em>\u00a0prominently showed the panel of judges drinking out of cups that displayed the Coca-Cola logo. What other products would be best sold using the peripheral route to persuasion? Another example is clothing: A retailer may focus on celebrities that are wearing the same style of clothing.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp55941504\">\n<h4>Foot-in-the-door Technique<\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idp101226496\">Researchers have tested many persuasion strategies that are effective in selling products and changing people\u2019s attitude, ideas, and behaviours. One effective strategy is the <strong>foot-in-the-door technique<\/strong> (Cialdini, 2001; Pliner, Hart, Kohl, &amp; Saari, 1974). Using the\u00a0<span id=\"term787\">foot-in-the-door technique<\/span>, the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favour or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favour or purchase of a bigger item. The foot-in-the-door technique was demonstrated in a study by Freedman and Fraser (1966) in which participants who agreed to post small sign in their yard or sign a petition were more likely to agree to put a large sign in their yard than people who declined the first request (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/12-3-attitudes-and-persuasion#CNX_Psych_12_03_signs\">Figure SP.15<\/a>). Research on this technique also illustrates the principle of consistency (Cialdini, 2001): Our past behaviour often directs our future behaviour, and we have a desire to maintain consistency once we have a committed to a behaviour.<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Psych_12_03_signs\" class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 650px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"36508\" src=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/resources\/65c62cdd88e10b7a06653592b2092ba918c83694\" alt=\"Photograph A shows a campaign button. Photograph B shows a yard filled with numerous signs.\" width=\"650\" height=\"285\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure SP.15 With the foot-in-the-door technique, getting someone to agree to a small request such as (a) wearing a campaign button can make them more likely to agree to a larger request, such as (b) putting campaigns signs in your yard. (credit a: modification of work by Joe Crawford; credit b: modification of work by &#8220;shutterblog&#8221;\/Flickr)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp211174336\">A common application of foot-in-the-door is when teens ask their parents for a small permission (for example, extending curfew by a half hour) and then asking them for something larger. Having granted the smaller request increases the likelihood that parents will acquiesce with the later, larger request.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp72520400\">How would a store owner use the foot-in-the-door technique to sell you an expensive product? For example, say that you are buying the latest model smartphone, and the salesperson suggests you purchase the best data plan. You agree to this. The salesperson then suggests a bigger purchase\u2014the three-year extended warranty. After agreeing to the smaller request, you are more likely to also agree to the larger request. You may have encountered this if you have bought a car. When salespeople realize that a buyer intends to purchase a certain model, they might try to get the customer to pay for many or most available options on the car. Another example of the foot-in-the-door technique would be applied to an individual in the market for a used car who decides to buy a fully loaded new car. Why? Because the salesperson convinced the buyer that they need a car that has all of the safety features that were not available in the used car.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"PrevNextBar__BarWrapper-sc-13m2i12-3 fEZPiF\"><\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":14,"menu_order":9,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":41,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/670"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/14"}],"version-history":[{"count":13,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/670\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1912,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/670\/revisions\/1912"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/41"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/670\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=670"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=670"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=670"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/digitaleditions.library.dal.ca\/intropsychneuro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=670"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}